Author: The Hi-Storyteller Humanities and History Club (2023-2024) of Beijing No.2 Middle School International Division
Abstract:
In the year 751 AD, General Gao Xianzhi of the Tang Dynasty beheaded the king of Chach in the capital. Filled with ambition and confidence, he set out once more on an expedition thousands of miles west, aiming to defeat the last remaining support of Chach—the Arab Empire (known in China as Dashi). As his army advanced toward the banks of the Talas River in present-day Kazakhstan, they encountered the black-clad Arab forces under the scorching summer sun. Gao Xianzhi’s reputation as a victorious commander had spread throughout the Tang Dynasty, but he was about to face a grueling battle and an unexpected defeat.
The Battle of Talas was neither a decisive war between two great empires nor a conflict that shook their foundations. The Tang Dynasty and the Arab Empire had expanded their territories to unprecedented distances, yet they remained out of each other’s direct reach. As history has repeatedly shown, excessive expansion often leads to decline. This brief encounter could not have predicted the shared fate of both empires—just as Gao Xianzhi himself likely never imagined how fleeting his moment of glory would be.
Four years later, the An Lushan Rebellion erupted, marking the beginning of the Tang Dynasty’s decline, from which it never fully recovered. Half a century later, the Red Turban Rebellion brought an end to the golden age of the Abbasid Caliphate.
I
History has proven time and again that extreme prosperity is often a prelude to decline. Looking back at this famous conflict, the reason the Tang Dynasty and the Arab Empire clashed was that both had pushed their territorial boundaries to their limits. In ancient times, vast land holdings symbolized power, but they also brought immense challenges: How could an empire sustain such a massive system?
In discussions about Chinese history, scholars frequently emphasize one recurring theme: the interaction and conflict between the Central Plains and the surrounding ethnic minorities. The Tang Dynasty was undoubtedly a multi-ethnic empire, but it was primarily led by the Han Chinese. Traditionally, the Han inhabited regions south of the Great Wall, but the Tang’s territory extended far beyond this core area. Managing internal ethnic relations was already a challenge, and the presence of neighboring empires led by non-Han peoples—such as Tibetans, Xiongnu, and later the Uighurs—posed an even greater threat. These groups bordered the Tang Empire, forming thousands of miles of frontier, which remained highly unstable, especially as these neighboring powers grew stronger.
From its very beginning, the Tang Dynasty faced an unfavorable geopolitical environment due to the gradual unification of surrounding tribal groups. In the mid-6th century, the Gokturks established a powerful khaganate on the Mongolian Plateau, which soon split into eastern and western factions. The Eastern Gokturks, located north of China, united various smaller forces and posed a significant threat to the early Tang Dynasty. In the early 7th century, they launched a major invasion southward, which was only repelled by Emperor Taizong after the famous Treaty of Weishui. In 629 AD, the Tang Dynasty launched a counteroffensive, conquering the Gokturks. However, by the late 7th century, the Eastern Gokturks rose again, forming the Second Turkic Khaganate, which continued to challenge the Tang until it was finally subdued just before the An Lushan Rebellion. While the Tang Dynasty seemed to have secured its borders, these prolonged wars had placed an enormous strain on its defenses.
One of the largest financial burdens of the Tang Dynasty was its military expenditures. In its early years, the primary military force was the Fubing system, composed of soldiers from military families in the northwest, including some non-Han warriors. These soldiers were exempt from taxes and labor duties, and they were mostly men from affluent backgrounds. Under this system, they only fought in wars when needed and returned to farming during peacetime. They had to provide their own weapons, equipment, and provisions.
While this approach appeared efficient, it had significant flaws: Soldiers who lacked long-term training were not highly skilled in combat, and their farming output was lower than that of regular peasants. This created financial inefficiencies—the government invested resources in maintaining a semi-professional military force but did not reap corresponding military or economic benefits. As the economy improved in the mid-Tang period, the tax exemptions offered to soldiers became less appealing, and military families were increasingly reluctant to send their sons to war. This led to a recruitment crisis, and as nomadic groups in the north gained strength, the importance of border troops and regional armies grew. These regional military governors, known as Jiedushi (also called warlords), gained significant power as defenders of the frontier.
While external threats were significant, they were not enough to topple the Tang Dynasty. Instead, it was the empire’s inability to manage internal affairs effectively that ultimately led to its downfall.
II
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang is remembered both for ushering in one of the most prosperous and open periods in Chinese history and for witnessing its irreversible decline. However, the rise and fall of the empire were determined by long-term structural factors rather than merely his personal indulgence in luxury.
On the other side of Asia, a strikingly similar story unfolded. Caliph Al-Ma’mun of the Abbasid Dynasty, like Emperor Xuanzong, presided over a golden age but also saw his empire torn apart by rebellions.
At the height of its power, the Arab Empire was suddenly plunged into chaos. This was no coincidence. To understand the origins of the Arabs, one must look at the Semitic peoples, who inhabited vast regions of North Africa and West Asia. The Hebrews and Babylonians were also branches of this group. Today, Arabs are defined as people who speak Arabic as their native language, encompassing not only the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula but also those in Central Asia and North Africa.
The formation of the Arab identity was closely tied to the spread of Islam. Before Islam, Arabic was merely a local language spoken by Bedouin tribes. However, the Prophet Muhammad united these tribes under Islam, establishing an empire that rapidly expanded while spreading the teachings of the Quran. Devout Muslims sought to understand the Quran in its original language, leading to the widespread adoption of Arabic even beyond the empire’s borders. Thus, defining the Arabs as a purely ethnic group is misleading—they became a new cultural entity united by language and religion.
Religion played a crucial role in maintaining unity within the empire. However, it also became the source of a fatal division. After Muhammad’s death, a bitter dispute arose over the rightful successor to lead the Islamic world. The Sunni faction believed the caliph should be elected by the Muslim community, while the Shia faction insisted that leadership should remain within Muhammad’s bloodline, specifically with Ali.
This sectarian conflict deeply influenced the empire’s history. When the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads, they initially relied on Shia support. However, once in power, they persecuted the Shia, leading to a series of uprisings. At the same time, regional elites—such as the Persian nobility—gained increasing power, mirroring the Tang Dynasty’s struggles with local warlords.
The Abbasid Empire reached its peak under Caliph Harun al-Rashid, known for his patronage of arts and sciences, including institutions like the House of Wisdom and cultural works such as One Thousand and One Nights. However, his reign also saw escalating power struggles. The empire relied heavily on foreign troops, particularly Turkic mercenaries, whose influence over the caliphs grew alarmingly. This pattern continued, eventually reducing the caliph to a mere religious figurehead while real power shifted to military leaders and viziers.
By the 13th century, the Abbasid Caliphate had become a shadow of its former self, and in 1258, it was completely destroyed by the Mongols.
III
These two ancient empires left behind invaluable cultural and historical legacies. However, their decline and fragmentation highlight the complex interplay between national unity and ethnic divisions. Military and economic strength alone could not sustain them—the internal struggles between different factions and social groups ultimately led to their downfall. Just as the universe expands and contracts, the rise and fall of empires are natural cycles in history.
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