Author: Ji Changjin, Beijing No.2 Middle School History Club (Main Campus)
The Turkic people were one of the northern nomadic groups that had a long-term influence on the central dynasties of ancient China. According to The History of the Northern Dynasties (Beishi), the “Account of the Turkic People” states: “The Turkic people, whose ancestors lived to the right of the Western Sea, formed an independent tribe and were a branch of the Xiongnu.” This suggests that the ancestors of the Turkic people were originally a subordinate tribe of the Xiongnu. The Beishi also records a myth about their origins: the ancestors of the Turkic people were nearly exterminated by a neighboring state, leaving only one surviving male who was raised by a she-wolf. When he grew up, he mated with the she-wolf, and she gave birth to ten sons. These sons later intermarried with the tribes east of the Western Sea (present-day northwest of the Gaochang Kingdom), each forming a separate clan. The most virtuous among them, from the Ashina clan, became the leader of the Turkic people. Because their ancestors were born from a she-wolf, the Turkic people took the wolf as their totem and erected a wolf-headed banner at their command post to symbolize their origins.
Based on various historical sources, scholars speculate that the Turkic people originated from a Dingling tribal alliance in the northwest of the Xiongnu territory during the Western Han period. This alliance was known as the “Suo Kingdom,” which was destroyed by Zhizhi Chanyu in 52 BCE. The remnants of this group re-emerged between 90 and 126 CE, forming four major divisions, among which the “Nadulu Set” tribe first adopted the name “Turkic.” During the Western Jin Dynasty, a branch of them migrated south to the area south of the Altai Mountains, where they merged with the local Awu clan, forming the Ashina royal family of the Turkic people. Later, during the Eastern Jin period, they moved further south to the northern mountains of Gaochang, where they learned iron smelting. By 450–460 CE, they had become a vassal of the Rouran Khaganate, serving as blacksmith slaves.
During their subjugation under the Rouran, the Turkic people grew in strength. However, due to the oppressive rule of the Rouran over their subordinate tribes, the increasingly powerful Turkic people became increasingly dissatisfied and sought to break away or even overthrow Rouran rule. In 545 CE, as Western Wei, controlled by Yuwen Tai, and Eastern Wei, under Gao Huan, clashed in battle at Yubi City, both sides sought to secure alliances with northern ethnic regimes to stabilize their northern borders. Western Wei dispatched envoys to form an alliance with the rising Turkic tribe, marking the Turkic people’s official entry onto the political stage of East Asia.
Six years later, in 551 CE, the Tiele tribes, also discontent with Rouran rule, launched a rebellion. Ashina Tumen, who had been consolidating his forces, defeated and incorporated the Tiele tribes before requesting a marriage alliance with the Rouran. However, his request was rejected, and the Rouran ruler Ana Gu humiliated Tumen’s envoys. Enraged, Tumen executed the Rouran envoys and, in the following year, launched an attack on the Rouran, ultimately achieving victory. The Rouran Khagan was defeated and committed suicide, while the royal family fled south to the Northern Qi. Ashina Tumen then proclaimed himself Yili Khagan, marking the establishment of the Turkic Khaganate.
The newly formed Turkic Khaganate quickly rose in power and formed a marriage alliance with the Northern Zhou Dynasty. In 563 CE (the third year of Emperor Ming of Northern Zhou’s reign), the regent Yuwen Hu decided to ally with the Turkic Khaganate against the Northern Qi. The Northern Zhou forces, led by General Yang Zhong, launched a northern offensive against the Northern Qi’s six frontier towns, while Yuwen Hu personally led forces on the southern front to divert the main Qi army. The northern offensive was highly effective, capturing twenty Northern Qi military strongholds. Encouraged by this success, the Turkic Khaganate, under Mugan, Kontitou, and Buli Khagans, mobilized an army of 100,000 to support the Northern Zhou. However, due to the exhaustion of Zhou troops after their long campaign, they suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Northern Qi at Jinyang, forcing the Turkic forces to retreat northward.
Over the following decades, the Turkic Khaganate oscillated between war and peace with the Central Plains dynasties, gradually expanding its influence. As the Turkic Khaganate grew stronger, it became a significant threat to the northern borders, transitioning from a former ally to a major menace for the Central Plains dynasties. The increasing Turkic incursions placed mounting pressure on border defense, prompting the Northern Zhou Emperor Yuwen Yong to begin planning for their pacification. However, his untimely death after unifying the north by defeating Northern Qi postponed these plans.
In 581 CE, Yang Jian seized the throne and established the Sui Dynasty. As he prepared to launch a southern campaign against the Chen Dynasty, the Turkic Khaganate once again posed a threat, prompting the Sui court to prioritize dealing with the Turkic forces before unifying the south.
During this period, internal power struggles within the Turkic Khaganate intensified. The issue of succession led to significant conflicts within the ruling elite. As the Sui replaced the Northern Zhou, the Turkic Khaganate also experienced a leadership transition. Following the death of Tobo Khagan (son of Ashina Tumen and successor to his brother Ashina Jielijin, or Mugan Khagan), his son Ashina Daluobian was designated as the heir. However, due to Daluobian’s mother’s lowly background, the Turkic nobles opposed his succession. Instead, Irbis Khagan (son of Ishbara Khagan, who was responsible for managing the eastern tribes) intervened, threatening to secede if Daluobian were crowned. This forced the court to enthrone Ashina Anluo, while Daluobian, frustrated by the loss of his rightful position, continued to challenge the new leader.
Irbis Khagan, fearing Daluobian’s strength, eventually pacified him by granting him the title of Apa Khagan and dominion over the western regions. Additionally, another faction was led by Ashina Dianjue (Dadu Khagan), overseeing territories west of the Jinshan (Altai) region. This internal fragmentation resulted in four rival factions within the Turkic Khaganate. Meanwhile, Princess Qianjin, previously married to Tobo Khagan through a marriage alliance, deeply resented the fall of her father’s dynasty (Northern Zhou) to the Sui and urged Irbis Khagan to seek revenge.
Following this, the Sui Dynasty employed diplomatic strategies, leveraging divisions within the Turkic Khaganate and securing alliances with the Apa Khagan and others to weaken Irbis Khagan. In 582 CE, the Turkic Khaganate launched a massive invasion, reportedly with an army of 400,000, breaching the Great Wall defenses and advancing toward Chang’an. However, through strategic deception and diplomatic maneuvering, the Sui forced the Turkic forces to withdraw.
In 583 CE, after thorough preparations, Emperor Wen of Sui launched a counteroffensive against the Turkic Khaganate. By employing a multi-pronged attack, the Sui inflicted devastating defeats upon the Turkic forces, forcing Irbis Khagan into a state of decline and leading to further fragmentation of the Turkic Khaganate into eastern and western factions.
The Turkic people, weakened by internal strife and military defeats, attempted reconciliation with the Sui. However, tensions resurfaced under Emperor Yang of Sui, culminating in the disastrous Siege of Yanmen in 615 CE, when the Sui emperor was nearly captured by the Turkic forces. Despite temporarily surviving the threat, the Sui Dynasty soon collapsed due to internal instability, paving the way for the resurgence of the Turkic people as a formidable northern power.
(This passage was edited by UHHC Operations office)
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