Randy+Simon
Among the several regions situated in the four corners of China, Sichuan has the most enclosed terrain, which endows it with greater independence than other areas. During transitions between order and chaos, Sichuan has invariably produced separatist regimes. In the period between the two Han dynasties, Sichuan was controlled by the Chengjia regime (25–36 AD), established by Gongsun Shu. At the end of the Eastern Han, Sichuan first came under the rule of Liu Yan and his son Liu Zhang, and later under the Shu Han regime (221–263 AD), founded by Liu Bei.
There has never been a historical period of division and upheaval in which Sichuan did not produce an independent separatist regime. Equally striking is the fact that among the many regimes established in Sichuan, none ever succeeded in unifying the empire.
First, this is related to a political “basin mentality” that is hard to dissociate from the precipitous Sichuan Basin itself. Throughout history, most rulers who occupied Sichuan were politically content with partial peace and separatian rule, lacking ambition for further expansion.
On the relationship between political and geographical factors, ancient China had a famous maxim: “Virtue matters, not perilous terrain.” Broadly speaking, virtue can represent political proactiveness and ambition, while perilous terrain represents the geographical conditions one can rely upon. “Virtue matters, not perilous terrain” means that only political proactiveness and ambition can ensure political prosperity and strength. Sichuan, known as the “Land of Abundance,” possesses rugged mountains, secure strongholds, and rich products.
Throughout Sichuan’s history, there has been a persistent contradiction between local forces and external forces. Most separatist regimes in Sichuan were established by outsider groups. As an external force, these outsider groups inevitably came into conflict with the native Sichuan forces. To a great extent, this contradiction consumed Sichuan’s internal strength.
Historically, Sichuan itself did not give rise to powerful political forces. This is also related to the local Shu people’s traditional disinclination toward official careers and political engagement.
Of course, the Shu people’s lack of enthusiasm for officialdom was also connected to political suppression by the central dynasties. Their failure to venture out of Sichuan to contend for the empire, despite having strategists offering good counsel that could not be put into practice, was partly due to the constraints arising from the host-guest contradiction. When Zhuge Liang made his Longzhong Plan, he remarked that “Liu Zhang was weak and inept,” and his inability to harmonize the host-guest contradiction was one of its main manifestations.
The fact that no regime established in Sichuan ever unified the empire is also related to Sichuan’s own geographical configuration. While Sichuan’s terrain certainly limited invasions by external forces, it also, in turn, hindered its own outward expansion.
Any power can, during its accumulation phase, use the mountainous and secure terrain of the four corners as a base. But to unify the empire, it must, after completing the accumulation phase, advance into the Central Plains—for only the Central Plains is the true arena for contending for supreme rule. Sichuan has only two main directions leading to the outside. Throughout history, the rulers of Sichuan generally guarded the Kui Gate in the east and Hanzhong in the north. Exiting eastward through the Kui Gate leads to Jingxiang, but between Jingxiang and the Central Plains lie the Dabie and Tongbai mountains. Heading north from Hanzhong, crossing the Qinling and Long mountains, one can reach Guanzhong and Longyou, but between Guanzhong and the Central Plains again lies the Xiao-Han mountain pass. Thus, between Sichuan and the Central Plains there is a double barrier, each layer of which is strategically formidable, making it very difficult for forces within Sichuan to join the ranks of contenders for the Central Plains. This is another important reason why Sichuan was prone to producing separatist regimes while none of them ever unified the empire.
Rulers of Sichuan in successive generations were generally able to exploit the geographical environment to achieve separatist rule. However, when it came to breaking out of separatism and seeking greater development, they were in turn constrained by that very geographical environment. This is the fundamental reason why Sichuan easily produced separatist regimes but never saw any of them accomplish the feat of unifying the empire.
Sichuan can only display its strategically significant position within an overall national layout. If it belongs only to a separatist regime, the geographical advantages that facilitated its separatism will instead become negative factors restricting its outward expansion.
(This article comes from the Timeless Threads History Club of Beijing 21st Century School, authored by Randy and Simon. All copyrights belong to the authors. For any infringement, the authors and UHHC will pursue legal liability to the fullest extent. The accompanying images are sourced from the internet; if any infringement exists, we will remove them immediately.)
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